New Kings and Kingdoms

5. a. Paramaras: The Paramaras were a medieval Indian dynasty that ruled Malwa and surrounding regions from around the 9th to the 14th century. They were known for their patronage of art and literature, especially during the rule of Bhoja I and Bhoja II.

b. Palas: The Palas were a prominent dynasty that ruled parts of present-day Bihar and Bengal from the 8th to the 12th century. They are noted for their support of Buddhism and for their contributions to Bengali literature and culture, particularly during the reign of Dharmapala.

c. Mahmud of Ghazni: Mahmud of Ghazni was a powerful ruler of the Ghaznavid Empire in the 11th century. He is known for his numerous invasions of the Indian subcontinent, primarily to plunder wealth from temples, and for establishing Ghazni as a center of Islamic culture and learning.

d. Rashtrakutas: The Rashtrakutas were a royal dynasty who ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the 8th to the 10th century. They were known for their patronage of art and architecture, including the famous Kailasa temple at Ellora, and for their conflicts with the Pallavas, Chalukyas, and other regional powers.

e. Social Life in the Medieval Period: Medieval Indian society was largely hierarchical, with a rigid caste system that governed social and occupational roles. Society was organized into varnas (castes) with Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants), and Shudras (laborers). Religion played a central role in daily life, with Hinduism and Islam being the predominant faiths in different regions. Trade and commerce flourished, and urban centers saw the growth of guilds and merchant communities. Women's roles varied by region and social class, but generally, they had limited rights and were subject to patriarchal norms.

6. a. Pratiharas: The Pratiharas were a medieval Indian dynasty known for their control over Rajasthan, Gujarat, and parts of Madhya Pradesh from the 8th to the 11th century. They rose to power as protectors against Arab invasions and became prominent through alliances and military prowess. Their decline began due to internal strife and external invasions, leading to the eventual disintegration of their kingdom.

b. Chola Empire Administration: The Chola Empire, which flourished in southern India from the 9th to the 13th century, had a highly organized administrative system. It was divided into units called Nadu (districts), which were further subdivided into Valanadu (regions). The king (Emperor) was the supreme authority, assisted by ministers and officials. Local administration was efficient, with revenue collection managed through a network of officials. The empire's success was also attributed to its naval administration, which facilitated trade and expansion across Southeast Asia.

c. Chola Administration: The Chola administration was characterized by a well-structured bureaucracy. The empire was divided into mandalams (provinces), which were further subdivided into valanadus (districts). Each district had administrative officials responsible for revenue collection, justice, and local governance. The central government had departments for various functions like treasury, military affairs, and agriculture. The Cholas were known for their efficient administration, which contributed to their long-lasting influence in South India and beyond.

d. Tripartite Struggle: The Tripartite struggle was a series of conflicts between the Palas, Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas for dominance in northern India from the 8th to the 10th century. It involved shifting alliances and battles over territory, primarily focusing on control over Kannauj, a strategically important city. This struggle weakened all three dynasties, paving the way for the emergence of other regional powers.

e. Agricultural Development in Chola Period: During the Chola period, several measures were taken to develop agriculture, including the construction of irrigation systems such as tanks (known as "Eri" or "Kulam"), canals, and dams. The Cholas also implemented efficient land revenue systems to ensure fair taxation and encourage agricultural productivity. They promoted cultivation of new crops, implemented measures to prevent soil erosion, and established agricultural settlements to expand cultivation areas. These efforts contributed significantly to the prosperity and stability of the Chola Empire.